Motivation

Motivation refers to the driving and pulling forces

which result in persistent behaviour directed towards

a particular goal. Motives are inferences from

observations of behaviour. They are powerful tools for

the explanation of behaviour and they allow us to

make predictions about future behaviour.

Physical needs like hunger, thirst, rest, sex etc. of

human beings are basic needs and they are hereditary.

The internal energy generated by the human being in

the course of several actions to satisfy his/her physical

needs that helps him/her to achieve the goal, is

called drive.

Theories of motivation include drive theories, incentive

theories, the opponent process theories and optimallevel

theories. Drive theories state that behaviour is

pushed towards goals by internal states within the

person. Incentive theories stress the ability of goals

to pull behaviour towards them. The opponent process

theory is a hedonistic theory as it says that we are

motivated to seek goals which make us feel good and

avoid goals that create displeasure. This theory also

says that many emotional motivating states are followed

by opposing or opposite states. Optimal level theories

are hedonistic theories which say that behaviour is

directed towards seeking an optimal level of arousal

or a balanced homeostatic state in internal

physiological processes.

Biological motives such as hunger, thirst and sex

have their origin in the physiological state of the body.

These motives can be aroused by departures from the

balanced or homeostatic levels of bodily processes, for

instance by certain hormones or by sensory stimuli.

Hunger motivation may be initiated when the blood

level or the rate of use of nutrient substances falls

below a certain threshold.

Sexual motivation depends to a large degree, on sex

hormones. These hormones organise the brain and

body during the developmental stage so that they

have male or female characteristics. The activation of

sexual motivation in humans is controlled more by

external stimuli and learning than by sex hormones.

Sleep, adjustment with temperature and environmental

/atmospheric conditions, freedom from discomfort/pain

and excretory pressure are other forms of physical

motivation.

Social motives are acquired motives such as the need

for achievement, need for power, and human

aggression which are learned/acquired motives that

involve other people. The need for achievement is a

motive to accomplish things and to be successful in

performing tasks. People in need of high achievement

prefer to work on moderately challenging and risky

tasks which promise success and tasks where their

performance can be compared with the performance

of others. They are persistent in their work, seek

more challenging tasks when they are successful and

like to work in situations where they have some

control over the outcome. Some women in need of

high achievement may not display the characteristic

behaviours mentioned above. The level of achievement

motivation in a society can sometimes be related to

its economic growth.

Power motivation is a social motive in which the

goals are to influence, control, persuade, lead, cajole,

charm others and enhance one’s reputation. The

behavioural expression of power motivation takes many

forms. Popular among them are impulsive and

aggressive action, participation in competitive sports,

the joining of organisations, the collection of

possessions, the choice of occupations which have a

high impact on others. Among men it also takes the

form of drinking and sexual domination over women.

A special form of power motivation is characteristic

of people who express their power motivation by

exploiting others in a deceptive and unscrupulous

fashion. Hostile aggression is the behaviour which

has as its goal the harming of another living being

who is motivated to avoid such harm. Among the

environmental and social causes of hostile aggression

are intense and arbitrarily imposed frustration,

insults, compliance with social pressures and

unpleasant environmental conditions such as high

temperatures, intense noise, crowding etc. Social

learning, classical and instrumental conditioning are

ways in which the tendency to aggress against others

can be learned. Under some conditions, punishment,

catharsis, the presence of non-aggressive models or

the induction of responses incompatible with

aggression may serve to lessen aggressive behaviour.

The course of motivation does not run smoothly. Things

happen that prevent us from reaching the goals towards

which we are driven or pulled. The term frustration

refers to the blocking of behaviour which is directed

towards a goal. There are many ways in which motives

can be frustrated. Conflict among simultaneously

aroused motives is the most important reason why

goals are not reached. If motives are blocked,

emotional feelings and behaviour are affected. A person

who cannot achieve his/her goal feels depressed,

fearful, anxious, guilty or angry. He/she becomes

unable to derive pleasure from living. There are many

sources of frustration. Among them, environmental

forces that block motive fulfilment, personal

inadequacies that make it impossible to reach goals

and conflicts between and among motives, are worth

mentioning. Environmental frustration is caused by

physical obstacles or resistance like lack of money, a

locked door or people (parents, teachers, police officers

etc.) preventing one from achieving the goal.

Factors that have an influence on an individual’s

physiological and social growth or development, affect

his/her motivation. Proper genetic characteristics, a

good diet, comfortable environmental conditions, a

harmonious and cooperative social environment etc.

help develop healthy motivation. Improper genetic

ingredients, malnutrition, communal/criminal or

unorganised social groups are obstacles to healthy

motivation.