Relevance of Psychology in Social Work Practice

Introduction

Psychology and social work are two different disciplines.

Psychology is predominantly academic in its approach

while social work is predominantly applied in its

orientation. But despite such differences, they are so

closely related to each other and it becomes quite

often impossible to think of their distinct existence

and practice in many respects. Psychology incepted

much earlier to social work and provided many

fundamental concepts and theories for developing tools

and techniques for social work. Both these disciplines

deal with components of human personality, human

nature and needs, human abilities, behavior and

problems. Both have their own ways of tackling human

problems, whether physical, mental or social, but in

many respects they are more or less similar.

Methodologies of helping people in both disciplines

involve similar tools and techniques to a considerable

degree. It is therefore, but natural to know about the

interdisciplinary relationship of these two professionoriented

disciplines.

Introduction to Psychology

Many of the fundamental assumptions, concepts,

principles, theories, methods, techniques and tools of

social work are based and derived from psychology

since human welfare and development are the ultimate

aims of social work. Psychology is the science that

studies the behavior of man and is the outcome of

theories and practical experiments pertaining to

different components and factors having an influence

on the individual’s personality and behaviour patterns.

We will take up some of the quite commonly used

concepts, tools and techniques in psychology relevant

for social work practice.

The word Psychology has been derived from Greek

literature and is a combination of two words i.e. ‘Psyche’

and ‘Logos’ which mean ‘soul’ and ‘the study of’. It

shows that initially Psychology was perceived as a

study of the soul or spirit. The word soul was vaguely

used and interpreted in many ways. Later the word

mind replaced the term soul. With the passage of

time, the nature of psychology has undergone many

changes. Its methodology has changed from sheer

speculation to a scientific approach and it is today

considered a science that studies the mind,

consciousness and behaviour of human beings.

Behaviour has a comprehensive meaning and includes

all types of behaviour of all living organisms. Psychology

has thus passed through different stages starting with

pure speculation to a discipline with scientific rigour

and specific research methods. Psychology is now

considered as the science of behaviour.

Psychological Schools

Schools

1) Behavioural

1913 –

present

Contributors

John B. Watson

Ivan Pavlov

Subject

Matter

Effect of

environment

on the overt

behaviour

Basic Premise

Only observable

events (stimulusresponse

relation)

of human

and animals can

be studied

scientifically.

Definition of Psychology

Definitions of psychology have been changing with its

evolution and development. The focus of psychology

has been changing and accordingly new definitions

have been formulated. Some of the popular definitions

are given below:-

2) Psycho

analytic

(1900-

present)

Sigmund Freud

Carl Jung

Alfred Adler

Unconscious

determination

of behaviour

Unconscious

motives and

experience in

early life govern

personality and

mental disorder.

3) Humanistic

(1950-

present)

Carl Rogers

Abraham

Maslow

Unique aspects

of human

experience

Human beings

are free rational

beings with the

potential for

personal growth,

and they are

fundamentally

different from

animals.

Jean Piaget

Noam Chomsky

Herbert Simon

4) Cognitive

(1950-

recent)

Thought; Mental

processes

Human behaviour

cannot be fully

understood

without examining

how people

acquire, store

and process

information.

An organism’s

functioning can

be explained in

terms of the

bodily structures

and biochemical

processes that

underlie

behaviour

Physiological

bases of

behaviour in

humans and

animals

James Olds

Roger Sperry

5) Biological

(1950-

present)

1) Psychology is the science of the activities of the

individual in relation to the environment1

— Woodworth

2) Psychology may be defined as the science that

studies the behaviour of man and other animals.2

— Hilgard

3) J.B. Watson has defined psychology as positive

science of behaviour.

4) Psychology is the study of human nature3.

— Boring

5) Psychology deals with response to any and every

kind of situation that life presents. By responses

or behaviour is meant all forms of processes,

adjustment, activities and expressions of the

organism4.

— Skinner

6) Psychology is the positive science of the conduct

of living creatures5.

James Drever has defined psychology as the positive

science which studies the behaviour of man and

animal.

The above definitions reveal that psychology is a

science: it is a positive science of the activities of

individual and human beings and other animals: it is

a science of behaviour in relation to the environment:

it is a science of human nature, it deals with responses

to any situation that life presents and expressions of

organism and psychology studies and explains

conscious, subconscious and unconscious responses.

Usefulness of Psychology to Social Work

Practice

Psychology deals with human behaviour, emotions and

projections. It also deals with some of the factors

responsible in the formation of behaviour patterns. We

know about the individual’s development through

psychology. Cognition, learning and memory are core

subject matters for psychology. Knowledge of

socialization process is dependent upon psychology.

We get to know about social process from psychology.

The individual’s reactions and behaviour, to a great

extent, are based upon projections, which is a

psychological phenomenon. Psychology studies the

interaction pattern between heredity and environment

and explain to us the reasons for aware of individual

differences in physical and mental traits and abilities.

During social work practice we seek the help of

psychology to understand and analyse human

behaviour. When a social worker makes an effort to

bring about a change in personality through functioning

or behaviour modification he has to look for help from

psychology. In resolving problems related to adjustment,

psychology helps social work. The method of social

case work of social work profession is dependent on

psychology. Group work derives many social,

psychological elements to be used in practice for group

strengthening and betterment, from psychology. Social

psychology studies group morale, leadership qualities

and traits, behaviours of crowds and audiences which

are useful in group work and to some extent, in

community organisation.

Psychology provides considerable help in the field of

social work practice, like individual and family case

work (for example, modification in individual’s

personality); diagnosing and treatment planning for

problem of children related to schooling; individual’s

adjustment with primary and secondary groups,

physical and mental patients’ accommodation with

medical requirements and adjustment with others;

understanding, diagnosing and modifying group

behaviour and developing leadership qualities; ego

analysis and strengthening and understanding

defensive reactions (mechanisms) of individuals and

counselling and guidance for enhancement in positive

adjustment and fulfilment of needs of individual and

society.

Social Work and Human Behaviour

An understanding of human behaviour is essential for

the profession of social work in order to deal with

psychosomatic or socio-economic problems faced by

people. The social worker has to understand the

behavioural pattern of the clientele at the individual,

group or community levels in order to help them.

Client-positive behaviour like cooperation, free dialogue

or conversation, participation, assistance, coordination,

and an interest and willingness to resolve problems

help the social worker to make a proper diagnosis of

the problem and plan an action for treatment. Negative

behaviour like unwillingness, non-cooperation,

escapism, isolation, hiding facts and biases etc., create

trouble and impediments to the successful practice of

social work profession. During case work, a social

worker has to handle his client along with the parents,

siblings, other family members, neighbours, friends,

school mates, colleagues and others who have some

influence on the client. The behavioural interaction

pattern of all these have to be kept in mind. Though

in casework the focus is on the individual, the actions

of others play a significant role. Need for love and

affection in a client can only be fulfilled if his/her

parents are affectionate to him/her. A teacher can

teach well in class if the students are willing to learn

and have patience. A group worker may help a group

in its formation and harmonious functioning if its

members act in a cooperative, and democratic manner.

In community organization, the behaviour of community

people, community leaders, existing organisational

personnel and others who in some way or the other

influence the community, play an important role in

helping the organization work in the desired direction.

The nature of their behaviour determines the quality

and quantity of the community worker’s role and

function. Behaviour exposing biases, cultural, social

or religious difference, professional or economic

reservations, political rivalries and unequal resource

distribution may create hurdles in the community

work.

Though it is a difficult task to have an indepth

understanding of the behaviour of individuals, the

social worker should make an effort to know it in

order to be more successful in attaining the goals and

objectives pertaining to the client.

General Psychology

The branch of psychology which deals with the

psychological aspects of a normal human being is

known as general psychology. In general psychology

we focus on concepts, theories and methods related

to heredity and environment, growth and maturation,

physiological bases of behaviour, sensation, perception

and attention, feelings and emotions, learning,

remembering and forgetting, thinking and reasoning,

intelligence and personality including individual

differences, aptitudes and reaction time.

Some of the above concepts used in general psychology

are explained below.

Biological inheritance is derived from genes located

in chromosomes. There are 46 chromosomes. A child

gets 23 chromosomes from each parent but the large

number of possible arrangements and combinations of

the genes causes members of even the same family

to differ sharply in hereditary constitution. That is

why each person is unique. The wide gaps in ability

are to be attributed to heredity. Differences in

physique, intelligence and aptitude are more affected

by inheritance than are social behaviour and personality

traits. However, the relative role of heredity and

environment in some of the above characteristics is

still debated among psychologists.

The term maturation denotes a state of development as

well as a process. A certain level of maturation is

necessary in the individual before a given behaviour

can appear.

Sense organs receive impressions from stimuli which

are energy changes in the environment. Stimuli

received by the receptors, i.e. the sense organs, are

communicated by the nervous system to the affectors

(muscles and glands). Impressions from the receptors

are carried to the affectors through pathways in the

connecting mechanism, the central nervous system.

The most important part of the nervous system is the

brain. Functions like movement, speech, sight,

learning, taste and smell have been located in specific

areas of the brain. Complex functions like perception,

memory and learning involve the entire brain and are

not localised.

Feelings are complexes of sensation. Feelings vary from

person to person and preferences depend on factors

such as age, sex and training. Emotions are feelings

which involve force and tension. Emotions have an

emergency value and prepare the body for action. The

ability to control emotions is desirable. Emotions may

be controlled by manipulating the stimuli which initiate

them.

Motives are drives. Motives range from inborn organic

tensions to complex acquired needs. Hunger, thirst,

sex, rest and sleep are most important organic needs.

Motives develop conflict. When conflicts are severe

and persistent one may need a counsellor’s help to

resolve the difficulties.

Learning is the result of focused physical and mental

activities which leads to new and changed responses.

The usual condition for learning is a state of need

and high motivation. It proceeds through a trial and

error period to a final selection of the appropriate

responses. Satisfaction or reduction in need which

follows the effective response is called reinforcement.

In human learning the goal is important. Efficient

learning is added by careful planning, instruction and

through insight development. Habits are sequences of

behaviour and automatic. Many habits are maladaptive

and they may be eliminated through a variety of

devices. For learning, some motivation or drive is

necessary. Curiosity and interest facilitate learning.

They may be measured in relation to personal lives

have a direct application to everyday life. A good

student makes use of outlines, notes, rules, tables

etc. and avoids studying when fatigued or bored.

Remembering and forgetting refer to the effect which

the passing of time has on some thing learned earlier.

Aspects of memory are classified under four heads (i)

Fixation or the act of learning itself, (ii) Retention or

the storing of the impression, (iii) Recall and (iv)

Recognition. Theories of forgetting have attributed

memory loss to (i) passive decay and (ii) interference

with the old by the new.

Thinking is behaviour which is often implicit and

hidden and in which symbols like images, ideas and

concepts are ordinarily employed. Thinking is not

confined to the head but may involve the whole body.

Though the brain is primary in thinking and reasoning,

muscular activity during thought indicates that many

parts of the brain is involved.

The experimental psychologist measures the facts of

behaviour and expresses the results in statistical

terms. These statistics serve to summarize a set of

scores in succinct form. The important aspect of mental

measurement is concerned with the relations among

traits.

Intelligent behaviour may be abstract, mechanical or

social. The abstract is concerned with the ability to

deal with symbols: the mechanical, with the

manipulation of physical objects such as tools,

machines etc. and the social with the skills in

personal and social affairs.

People differ from one another in physical, mental

and personal characteristics. There is considerable

variation among the traits within an individual. Sex

differences show that at maturity, by and large, men

are stronger and heavier than women but the

difference in respect of mental ability is insignificant.

Differences in temperamental and emotional traits

are far greater within either sex than aptitude traits.

Aptitude examinations measure present competence

as well as estimate potential ability. On the basis of

standard aptitude tests, psychological and social work

counsellors provide valid information to their clients

for probable success in the working field of the person.

Personality includes attributes like physique,

appearance, intelligence aptitudes and characteristic

of social behaviour. Personality traits are not similar

to abilities. Personality is revealed in the typical ways

in which the individual reacts to his surroundings.

Personality traits become character traits when given

a moral or ethical interpretation. From birth to

maturity, the personality is shaped by society within

the limits imposed by biological factors. Normality is

the behaviour which is tolerated by society.

The reaction time is the time taken by the organism to

respond to the stimuli. There are specific instruments

in psychology to measure reaction time. These are

useful in identifying persons for specific occupations

which require high degree of alertness and attention.

Child Psychology

Child Psychology is the branch of psychology which

deals with the childhood of a human being.

Psychologists consider a human as a child till the age

of 12 years. From 12 to 18 years human beings are

considered adolescents. The development of a human

being from the moment of conception to the attainment

of the age 18 years is the subject matter of child

psychology. The total childhood and adolescence of an

individual has been divided into five categories i.e.

pre-natal period, infancy, babyhood, childhood and

adolescence. The first period is from conception to

birth. The second one is from birth to fifteen days, the

third one is from fifteen days to two years, the fourth

one is from two years to eleven years and the last one

is eleven years to eighteen years. Another

categorisation is as follows— (i) Prenatal (from

conception to birth), (ii) Oral (birth to one year),

(iii) Anal (one year to three year), (iv) Oedipal (three

year to six year,) (v) Latency (six year to eleven year),

(vi) Adolescence. Child psychology deals with stages of

growth, development and maturation, environmental

influences on growth and development and psychosocial

interactions between the child and other

members of primary and secondary social groups and

the society. An individual is constantly changing from

conception till death. Throughout childhood and

adolescent years, a child develops his physical and

mental structure. Development is a continuous process

and changes in the individual may not be always

visible. Changes are rapid in childhood. All

developmental changes are not of the same nature.

They influence the process of growing up in different

ways. Changes during development have been divided

into four major groups: (i) Changes in size: Changes

in size can be observed in physical growth but they

can be also observed in mental growth. During normal

growth height, weight and circumference of a child

increase. Internal organs and structures such as the

heart, intestine and stomach grow larger to meet the

increasing needs of the body. The child’s vocabulary,

ability to reason, remember and perceive, and the

creative imagination expand during growth years, (ii)

The changes in proportion: A child’s physical

development is not confined to changes in size of the

body but also of other organs proportionately. Mental

development in childhood is also apparent. The interests

of a child change from concentration on himself to

other children and in adolescence to the opposite sex,

(iii) Disappearance of old features: The third important

change which takes place in the development of the

individual is the disappearance of certain features. As

the child grows older his thymus gland located in the

chest disappears, the pineal gland at the base of the

brain, baby hair, and baby teeth also disappear. Mental

traits like bobbing, different forms of speech, impulsive

action, creeping and crawling and sensory keenness

in regard to taste and smell gradually disappear, (iv)

Acquisition of new features: Many new physical and

mental features are acquired through learning but

some of them are the result of maturing or unfolding

of native traits not fully developed at birth. The physical

features include, among others, teething, growth of

hair, characteristics related with reproduction etc.

Mental traits include curiosity about sex matters, sex

urge, knowledge, moral standards, religious beliefs,

knowledge of language and neurotic tendencies.

Development is not a uniform process. It is extremely

rapid during the prenatal period. From fertilization to

birth, increase in weight is estimated at 11,000,000

times and from birth to maturity the increase is 22

times. From three to six years the growth rate

continues to be rapid though not as rapid as in the

preceding three years. The development follows a

pattern and occurs in orderly fashion. Each stage is

the outcome of the one preceding it and a pre-requisite

of the one following it. From four to sixteen weeks,

the body gains control of his/her twelve loco-motor

muscles. From sixteen to twenty eight weeks, the

child acquires control over the muscles which support

the head and can move the arms. The child then

begins to reach out for things. From twenty eight to

forty weeks the child gains control of his/her trunk

and hands. This helps in sitting, grasping, transferring

and manipulating objects. From forty to fifty two weeks,

he/she extends the ability to control his legs and

feet, four fingers and thumb. He can now stand upright,

poke, and pluck. During the second year, he walks

and runs; articulates words and phrases, acquires

bowel and bladder control and develops a rudimentary

sense of personal identity and of personal possession.

During the third year he speaks in sentences and

uses verbs as tools of thought. He displays a propensity

to understand his environment and to comply with

cultural demands. During the fourth year he asks

innumerable questions, perceives analogies and

displays a tendency to generalise and conceptualise.

In the routine of home life he is nearly independent.

At the age of five years a child is well matured in

motor control.

Development follows a pattern of specific phases of

development. Development proceeds from general to

specific responses. Individual differences in rate of

development remain constant. Development occurs at

different rates for different parts of the body. Most

traits are co-related in development. Each

developmental phase has characteristic traits.

Development may be predicted. Many forms of problem

behaviour are normal behaviour for the age in which

they occur. Every individual passes through each major

stage of development.

By now, we have familiarised ourselves with different

tasks and characteristics of infancy and childhood

(Birth to six years). Now we will consider the tasks

of middle childhood that last from six to twelve years.

These are as follows :

i) Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary

games.

ii) Building wholesome attitudes towards oneself as

a growing organism.

iii) Learning to get along with age mates.

iv) Learning an appropriate sex role.

v) Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing

and calculating.

vi) Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.

vii) Developing conscience, morality and a scale of

values.

viii) Achieving personal independence.

ix) Developing attitudes towards social groups and

institutions.

During adolescence (11-18 years) the child behaves

inconsistently. Sometimes he behaves like a child

and sometimes like a grown up person. He suffers

from internal conflict between social values and sexual

freedom. Studies show that several characteristics of

different stages appear in this period of life.

Adolescents need freedom in many respects and do

not appreciate the interventions of others in their

affairs. Adolescents are attracted to the opposite sex

but they try to hide this feeling and show that they

are not interested in the opposite sex. The significant

changes in body are rapid development of muscles,

increase in weight and height, rapid development in

glands, appearance of public hair and enlargement of

breasts, menstruation in girls, semen in boys, pubic

hair etc. The intelligence reaches an average level at

the end of this stage and acceptability and projection

capability of ego develop considerably, but the decisionmaking

ability lags behind. In some adolescents,

agitation appears and they look tired. Emotional tension

is also an important feature of this period. The basic

needs of this stage are a balanced diet, ten hours

sleep, recognition and encouragement.

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies and describes

physical, mental emotional and behavioural changes

which happen with changes in age. Physical and

behavioural changes occur more rapidly in the early

years of life and mental and social traits and abilities

develop quicker in later ages of life. Many psychologists

use child psychology as a synonym for developmental

psychology. Child psychology includes a study of all

those basic elements which are responsible for human

personality development during childhood while the

same approach after childhood may be considered as

developmental psychology. Contrary to this view, other

psychologists argue that the development of a human

being is not over after childhood and in many respects,

the individual’s abilities and traits increase and

decrease in later phases of life.

You have gone through the main features of child

psychology in the previous sub-unit ‘Child Psychology:

Here we will take up salient features of the

development between childhood and the old age. You

have become aware of stages of childhood i.e. (i) Prenatal,

(ii) Oral, (iii) Anal, (iv) Oedipal (Phallic),

(v) Latency and (vi) Adolescence and about stages of

life after adolescence. The span of life between

adolescence and old age has been divided into three

main categories i.e. (i) Pre maturity (between 18 years

to 25 years), (ii) Maturity (between 25 years to 45

years) and (iii) old age (above 45 years). During prematurity,

individuals develop maximum physical

strength, vigour and emotional control. The basic needs

of this stage are a balanced diet, regular physical

exercise, recognition and favour of elders etc. During

maturity he remains somewhat static in his physical

and mental abilities but goes on learning, adapting

and developing skills and knowledge requisite to his

job, profession or social norms and attains the desired

possible status. The basic needs of this stage are for

the sustainability of physical strength regular exercise,

love and affection of spouse and family members and

care. In old age, a decline of physical and mental

abilities takes place. Physical strength and vigour

diminishes, organs of body weaken and gradually

different inabilities develop. Auditory, visual, eating

and digestive execratory organs gradually become

weak. Memory loss and incoherence in physical and

mental activities becomes apparent. Anxieties and

worries about future life increase. Insecurity regarding

income and health develop during old age. Menopause

occurs in females in the initial years of this period.

Individuals in old age need appropriate reading

material, visual equipment, clubs and forums for

exchanging views, economic and social security, a

nutritious diet, medical facilities etc. Difficult

situations of this last stage are death of own child,

death of spouse, severe and prolonged illness of close

family members and extreme poverty.

Clinical Psychology

The complexity of modern life is affecting members of

society. It has become difficult for many of us to

adjust to the new social setting. We need help for

proper adjustment with our social components. Clinical

psychology provides assistance to us for better

adjustment. Clinical psychology also deals with those

aspects which are related to some type of deviancy.

It is also concerned with the enhancement and

betterment of community life and prevention of mental

disorders. Clinical psychology associates itself with

problems like maladjustment between employee and

employer, generational gap and poor individual

relationship within groups. Many times the scope of

clinical psychology overlaps with the scope of

counselling psychology, psychiatry and social work.

For scanning the nature of clinical psychology we

should consider activities of clinical psychologists.

Counsellors, psychiatrists and social workers use

psychological concepts in helping people to adjust.

They differentiate themselves from clinical

psychologists on the basis of the focus of the problem.

Vocational counselling is concerned with an individual’s

adjustment with his job and likewise educational

counselling is concerned with the adjustment of the

individual with the educational setting. There is much

overlapping between clinical psychology and psychiatry.

Both deal with broad characteristics of mental illness

or personality disturbance. They differ in respect of

training of practitioners and the approach to problems.

A clinical psychologist is trained to approach mental

disturbance by examining earlier experiences and

learning while the psychiatrist approach these disorders

by considering them as specific diseases and by applying

appropriate treatments. Even then, in many cases

psychiatrists and clinical psychologists use similar

approaches to solve the problem. Clinical psychologists

usually deal with the individual case. They may extend

their concern to the family, secondary group and

community which affect the individual’s adjustment

to the environment. They observe ongoing behaviour

and the living situation of the people to help the

individual. Clinical psychology and practice of medicine

have an important relationship with each other and

that is why clinicians call them patients in a medical

setting while in a non-medical setting they are called

clients. A large number of clinical psychologists work

in a medical setting in co-operation with psychiatrists

and other physicians. The role of clinical psychologists

is not confined to only mentally ill persons. They also

work with people not seriously maladjusted. They take

an interest in mental health as well as deviant

behaviour. When a clinical psychologist works with a

mental patient, he applies abnormal psychology. But

they also work for schools, industries and communities

and deal exclusively with human problems of a normal

nature.

Community health programmes aim at prevention as

well as cure of mental problems. Clinical psychologists

identify factors which may lead to mental problems

and take steps for their prevention. The knowledge of

psycho-pathology is significant for clinical psychologists.

Though there is overlapping between clinical psychology

and counselling psychology, they have different

approaches. Counselling is basically concerned with

decisions and choices of individuals whereas clinical

psychology is concerned with the specific and difficult

problems of the individual.

Clinical psychology and social work profession have a

close relationship as they both help the individual to

solve his/her problems related to adjustment, deviance

and psycho-somatic ailments. In social work we deal

with the individual’s ego strengthening, insight

development, perception and decision making etc.

Clinical psychology also deals with these aspects but

its approach is more in-depth, wide and has a

psychoanalytical base. Adjustment problems between

individuals, individual and group and individual and

community are handled by both professions. In clinical

psychology, greater stress is given to the individual’s

personality traits and his/her responses to social factors

whereas in social work more emphasis is given to

social factors and components. In extreme cases of

mental disorders the help of psychiatrists is required

and clinical psychologists only assist them. The social

worker refers such cases either to a psychiatrist or

clinical psychologists with the case history record of

the patient